2024/09/20
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Paper Reading

Understanding Employees’ Unused Vacation Days: A Social Cognitive Approach

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PaperReading_slides 20分鐘。

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p.69 Abstract
- Using a social cognitive perspective,
- have low detachment self-efficacy 能 擺脫 的《自我效能》感低
《自我效能》Self Efficacy: The Exercise of Control 指的是一種自制的能力。是一種自信心的外在表現。

- A recent survey conducted by the Society for Human Resource Management (2017) revealed that, on average, only 68% of employees use all of their paid vacation days across a wide range of industries (Society for Human Resource Management, 2017). - Although many popular news articles have addressed this issue (Dickler, 2018; Howe, 2017; Lipman, 2018), little research has focused on understanding the psychological factors that predict unused vacation days

• we draw on social cognitive theory (Bandura, 2001), an influential psychological theory that seeks to explain the cognitive factors driving important domain-specific decisions.
  
  
• propose that employees do not use all of their vacation days when they: (a) lack confidence that they can successfully detach from work during vacations, (b) expect negative outcomes from taking vacations, and (c) do not expect positive outcomes from taking vacations.
  
  
• research has less frequently examined the psychological factors that function as antecedents of such activities
  研究較少檢查作為此類活動(vacation)前因的心理因素
  
  
• First, we introduce a new domain-specific self-efficacy construct— detachment self-efficac. construct— detachment構築—分離 self-efficacy自己効力感
  
  

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p.70 --

1.First:
2.Second: 'social cognitive perspective' We address this gap: none of this research has identified recovery-relevant outcome expectations—another important com-ponent of the social cognitive framework
3.We also contribute to the recovery literature

• To the extent that these policies can help employees achieve work–life balance, it is important to understand why employees are hesitant to use them.
  
  Literature Review 文獻回顧
  文獻回顧 The Effect of Vacations on Health and Well-Being
  
  
• Consistent with the effort–recovery model, a substantial body of research demonstrates that vacations help employees recover and protect their health and well-being
  
  
• 1988, 2009 studies found: employees took vacation compared with a control group of employees who did not take a vacation. significant short-term increases in life satisfac-tion (d  .24) and decreases in exhaustion (d  .55) and physicalhealth complaints (d  .68).
  
  
• employed women who take fewer vacations have a higher 20-year incidence of myocardial infarction or coronary death
  休暇が少ない就労女性は、20年間の心筋梗塞や冠状動脈疾患による死亡率が高い
  
  
• take fewer vacations have increased mortality rates
  休暇の減少は死亡率の上昇につながる
  

文獻回顧 Understanding Unused Vacation Days

- many people do not use all of their vacation days
(Matos, 2014; Society for Human Resource Management, 2017).
有這樣的研究資料

- Further, even when people do use their paid vacation days, they sometimes use those days for nonrecuperative activities other than vacation thus likely failing to derive the health and well-being benefits afforded by using those days for vacation.
さらに、有給休暇を使用した場合でも、休暇以外の回復以外の活動に使用することがあり、休暇に使用することで得られる健康や幸福のメリットを得られていない可能性があります。(又去打第二份工)

- Given the importance of vacations for health and well-being, the tendency for employees to not use their vacation days— or to not use those days for vacation—is a concerning phenomenon.

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p.71 文獻回顧
- Previous research has explored predictors of employees’ unused vacation days, focusing primarily on demographic and job-related variables.
これまでの研究では、主に人口統計学的および職業関連の変数に焦点を当てて、従業員の未使用休暇日数の予測因子を調査してきました。

- employees who are older, with family, high edu. income. have higher socioeconomic status - Regarding job-related factors,employees who work longer hours tend to use fewer vacation days - employees with longer job tenure tend to use more vacation days

- what remains unclear is why employees do not use their paid vacation days
従業員が有給休暇を使わない理由は不明である。

文獻回顧 Social Cognitive Theory as an Underlying Framework

- we use social cognitive theory (Bandura, 2001)—a framework commonly used to understand behaviors related to health and well-being.

- social cognitive theory emphasizes two main cognitive factors that predict domain-specific behaviors: self-efficacy and outcome expectations
社会認知理論は、領域特有の行動を予測する2つの主要な認知要因、すなわち自己効力感と結果期待を強調している。

文獻回顧 A Social Cognitive Perspective on Unused Vacation Days

- In social cognitive theory, domain-specific self-efficacy is an important antecedent of successful domain performance.
社会認知理論では、領域特有の自己効力感は、領域パフォーマンスの成功の重要な前提条件です。

**問題是遠端與在家工作後，這樣的detaching from work 是否變得模糊了!?

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p.72 文獻回顧

- Consistent with Bandura’s focus on interpersonal outcomes, we expect that one reason employees may not use their vacation is because of the anticipated negative reactions of their supervisors or peers.
與班杜拉對人際結果的關註一致，我們預期員工不利用假期的原因之一是他們的主管或同事的預期負面反應。

- the perceived interpersonal consequences of non-work decisions
非工作決策所帶來的人際後果
- explicit or implicit expectations to conform to ideal worker norms
明確或隱含的期望以符合理想的工人規範

- Thus, we expect that employees’ expectations about the negative consequences of vacations on their productivity will impact their use of vacation days
因此，我們預期員工對假期對其生產力產生負面影響的期望將影響他們對假期的利用

文獻回顧 Summary of Present Studies

In sum, we expect that employees’ use of their vacation days is impacted by their detachment self-efficacy and their expectations of positive and negative outcomes associated with vacations. To examine our explanation, we developed and validated measures of these constructs and examined whether they predicted employees’ use of their annual paid vacation days.

The purpose of Study 1 was to identify common dimensions of employees’ outcome expectations for vacations and develop an initial item pool to assess these dimensions.
In Studies 2 and 3, we conducted exploratory and confirmatory analyses to assess and finalize the items.
In Study 4, using two waves of data, we examined whether the newly developed social cognitive variables predicted employees’ unused vacation days.
總之，我們預期員工對假期的利用會受到他們的超然自我效能感以及他們對與假期相關的正面和負面結果的期望的影響。為了檢驗我們的解釋，我們開發並驗證了這些結構的測量方法，並檢查它們是否預測了員工對年度帶薪休假的使用情況。
研究 1 的目的是確定員工對假期結果期望的常見維度，並開發一個初始項目庫來評估這些維度。
在研究 2 和 3 中，我們進行了探索性和驗證性分析來評估和最終確定項目。
在研究 4 中，我們使用兩波資料檢驗了新開發的社會認知變數是否可以預測員工未使用的假期天數。

Method
Studies 1–3: Developing Measures

- Participants. We recruited participants using Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk).

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p.73 文獻回顧

- retained 89 respondent
- Participants responded to two prompts asking them to list important positive and negative outcomes they would expect from taking a vacation
參與者回答了兩個提示，要求他們列出他們期望度假帶來的重要的正面和負面結果
- Participants generated a total of 658 responses regarding their positive (353) and negative (305) expectations for taking a vacation.
(those are kind of open-ended answer)

- Analyses and results:
independent parallel coding: 3 researchers independently organized the open-ended responses into their own meaningful categories.
then the coders discussed their categories and agreed on six categories of positive outcome expectations.
and seven categories of negative outcome expectations.

- Item generation:
then generated item pools for each of the individual dimensions. Dimension definitions and sample items are reported in Table 1.
- resulted in a total of 11 items for detachment self-efficacy, 77 items for positive outcome expectations, and 87 items for negative outcome expectations.
conducted item content validity analyses (see File S1 in the online supplemental materials for details)
remove all roblematic items: 66P+72N

Study 2.

Participants. To examine the structure of the initial item pool,
we recruited 379 participants
379 respondents -> 316 at last

Measures.
- Self-efficacy items. 11 items, assessed the extent to which employees believe that they can successfully detach or disconnect from work while on vacation. (7-point Likert scale) from 1 (not at all confident) to 7 (totally confident).

- Outcome expectations. 66 items, assessed the extent to which individuals believed they would experience six positive outcomes if they took a vacation.
A total of 72 items, assessed the extent to which individuals believed they would experience seven negative outcomes if they took a vacation.
Sample items from the shown in Table 1

- Results.
We conducted an exploratory factor analysis of the 149 items using maximum likelihood estimation and direct oblimin rotation.
We determined the number of factors to retain by considering the number of factors with eigenvalues >1 and the scree plot(碎石圖).

This reduced the number of factors to 17.

- This process eliminated three uninterpretable factors, resulting in a 14-factor solution, reflecting detachment self-efficacy, five positive outcome expectations, seven negative outcome expectations, and one uninterpretable factor.
這個過程消除了 3 個不可解釋的因素，得到了 14 個因素的解決方案，反映了超脫自我效能感、5 個正面結果預期、7 個負面結果預期和 1 個不可解釋因素。 因素。

resulting in a 13-factor structure of 105 items.
- To reduce the item pools for each dimension to a desirable number of three to six items

- First, we examined internal item qualities (e.g.,means, variance, and kurtosis) and removed five items that had high means and high kurtosis—indicators of restricted variability.
- Finally, we examined item content, a component of judgmental item quality (Stanton et al., 2002), to reduce the number of redundant items in each dimension.

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p.74 Method

Table 1:
Note. The full set of final items are shown in File S2 in the online supplemental materials. This table does not include the “refreshed” dimension from Study 1, as it was removed for psychometric reasons in Study 2.

• Descriptive statistics for the reduced scales are shown in Table 2
  
• The final set of items is shown in the File S2 in the online supplemental materials
  

Study 3.
Participan
- A total of 372 participants provided usable data (54% male, 75% White, mean age = 38.4 [SD = 10.7]).

- Measures
Descriptive statistics and correla- tions for Study 3 variables are shown in Table 3.
- Confirming the factor structure.
We conducted confirmatory factor analyses in Mplus Version 7.4 (Muthén & Muthén,1998 –2017) using maximum likelihood estimation and 1,000 bootstrapped confidence intervals

For each, the two-dimension solution showed better fit, as indicated by a significant decrease in 2, higher comparative fit index(CFI) and Tucker–Lewis index (TLI) values, and lower standard- ized root mean residual (SRMR) and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) values

- The full measurement model displayed acceptable fit

- Discussion: Studies 1–3. Across three studies, we identified and developed measures to assess key social cognitive constructs (i.e., detachment self-efficacy, outcome expectations) that likely function as important antecedents of employees’ unused vacation days.

- These measures displayed good psychometric properties, including high reliability and good fit in an overall measurement model

Study 4.
The primary goal of Study 4 was to test our social cognitive predictors of employees’ unused paid vacation days. We predicted that employees’ unused vacation days would be explained by their lack confidence in their ability to detach and their expectations about outcomes that will result from taking vacation. Two additional goals of Study 4 were to: (a) evaluate the measurement validity (i.e., convergent and discriminant validity) of our scales and (b) to further evaluate the psychometric properties of our scales.

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(2024/09/21 下午要去台東)

• To evaluate the measurement validity of our scales, we assessed the extent to which our detachment self-efficacy scale exhibited convergent validity with conceptually similar scales, expecting negative correlations with work addiction and work-related rumination.
  為了評估量表的測量有效性，我們評估了我們的「脫離自我效能感」量表與概念上相似的量表，表現出收斂效度的程度，預期與「工作成癮」和「工作相關反芻」呈負相關。
  (哲文：有類似意義的數字，應向同一方向收斂，相反意義的數字，則應有「負相關」的呈現。)
  
  

Work Addiction
The role of perceived autonomy support and fear of failure: A weekly diary study on work-related rumination

- We anticipated that employees with high levels of work addiction and work-related rumination would experience lower levels of detachment self-efficacy. However, we also expected detachment self-efficacy to be distinct from these constructs.

Occupational self-efficacy and work engagement as moderators in the stressor-detachment model.
-002)
The Role of Occupational Self-Efficacy in Mediating the Effect of Job Insecurity on Work Engagement, Satisfaction and General Health

• We also expected detachment self-efficacy to be distinct from job self-efficacy, as they refer to confidence in different domains.
  

- Method.
To examine whether our proposed social cognitive predictors explained employees’ unused vacation days, we conducted a time-separated study with social cognitive variables, variables used to establish measurement validity, and controls measured at Time 1 (December 2018) and information about use of vacation days measured ~2 weeks later (January 2019). Temporal separation of our predictors and outcomes helped reduce concerns about common method bias.
方法:
為了檢驗我們提出的社會認知預測變數是否可以解釋員工未使用的假期，我們對社會認知變數、用於建立測量有效性的變數以及在時間1（2018 年12 月）測量的控制以及有關假期所使用的資訊進行了時間間隔研究兩週後（2019 年 1 月）測量的天數。我們的預測變數和結果的時間分離有助於減少對共同方法偏差的擔憂。 (哲文: 隔兩週跨過年來問，方便答題者回顧，全年的給薪休假日多少？用了多少(多少日沒有用到) )

• 使用Qualtrics Panels召募參與問卷回答者：We collected data from 1,400 participants at Wave 1 and 815 participants at Wave 2 (retaining 58.2% from Wave 1).4 Respondents were compensated after each wave. Respondents chose from among several compensation options, including gift cards and cash.

qualtrics Unlock breakthrough insights with market research panels
qualtrics What is a research panel (and should we have one)?

- 7-point Likert scale, ranging from 1(strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).) 問卷是7分制的-李克特量表，範圍從1強烈不同意到7（非常同意）。
- working excessive and compulsive 過度工作和強迫性工作; 問題例如：
“I find myself still working after my coworkers have stopped working" “當我的同事停止工作後，我發現自己仍在工作”

• Work-related rumination was measured using two dimensions of the Work-Related Rumination Questionnaire (Querstret & Cropley, 2012): Work-Related Affective Rumination (e.g., “Are you troubled by work-related issues when not at work?”) and Work-Related Problem-Solving Pondering (e.g., “After work, I tend to think about how I can improve my performance”). Responses ranged from 1 (never) to 6 (frequently).
  與「工作相關反芻」是使用（Querstret & Cropley，2012）兩個維度來測量的：
  與「受工作影響的反芻」（例如，「不工作時，您是否受到與工作相關的問題困擾？ 」）
  和「工作相關反芻的問題解決思考」（例如，「下班後，我傾向於思考如何提高我的表現」）。
  答案範圍從 1（從不）到 6（經常）。
  
  

-Job self-efficacy was measured using the Personal Efficacy Beliefs Scale (Riggs et al., 1994). This 10-item measure assessed the extent to which one felt confident about their ability to perform their job (e.g., “I have confidence in my ability to do my job”). Responses ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Positive and negative affectivity were measured using the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (Watson et al., 1988). This 20-item measure assesses the extent to which people feel specific positive emotions (e.g., “enthusiastic,” “interested”) and negative emotions (e.g., “distressed,” “nervous”) in general. Responses range from 1 (very slightly or not at all) to 5 (extremely).
工作自我效能感是使用個人效能信念量表（Riggs et al., 1994）來衡量的。
這項包含 10 項的衡量標準評估了人們對自己完成工作的能力的信心程度（例如，「我對自己完成工作的能力有信心」）。答案範圍從 1（強烈不同意）到 7（非常同意）。使用正向和負向情緒表來測量正向和負向情緒（Watson et al., 1988）。這項包含 20 項的指標評估人們整體感受特定正面情緒（例如「熱情」、「感興趣」）和負面情緒（例如「苦惱」、「緊張」）的程度。反應範圍從 1（非常輕微或根本沒有）到 5（非常嚴重）。

• Control variables included marital status, gender, age, parental status, typical weekly work hours, job tenure (years and months), and household income (12 categorical options ranged from less than $10,000/year to over $150,000/year).
  

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p.78 (2024/09/21 下午要去台東)

- Wave 2 measures.

- 因為2018年剛過，此時來問正好：
-Paid vacation days given in 2018.
To assess how many paid vacation days participants received during 2018, we asked the following:
“How many paid vacation days were you given during 2018 (from January 1st, 2018, to December 31st, 2018)?”.
Because of concerns about whether participants’ reports of this information was accurate, we asked participants: “How confident are you that your previous response accurately reflects the number of paid vacation days you were given?”. Responses ranged from 1 (not at all confident) to 5 (extremely confident)
2018年有薪休假天數。
為了評估參與者在2018 年期間獲得了多少帶薪休假天數，我們詢問了以下問題：「您在2018 年期間（從2018 年1 月1 日到2018 年12 月31 日）獲得了多少帶薪休假天數？
由於擔心參與者對此資訊的報告是否準確，我們詢問參與者：「您對先前的回答是否準確反映了您獲得的帶薪休假天數有多大信心？」。答案範圍從 1（完全沒有信心）到 5（非常有信心）

• for DATA CLEANING
  we removed participants who were not at all confident (a), slightly confident (b), or somewhat confident (c) that the number of paid vacation days they reported in the survey was accurate.
  

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p.78 (到83 還有5頁)

- “Sometimes people use their paid vacation days for things other than vacation. How many of those paid vacation days used in 2018 were used for vacation?”
- In addition to the control variables previously discussed, we also collected information on whether employees lost their unused paid vacation days or if they could retain or be paid for these days—a factor researchers have emphasized as potentially impacting use of vacation days.
除了前面討論的控制變數之外，我們還收集了有關員工是否失去了未使用的帶薪休假日或他們是否可以保留這些天數或獲得報酬的資訊——研究人員強調這一因素可能會影響休假日的使用。

p.78
- To assess this, we asked the following: “If you do not use all of your paid vacation days by the end of the year, which of the following does your company allow you to do?”
- (a) you can be paid out for unused days, (b) you can bank unused days (e.g., for parental leave, retirement, etc.), (c) you can roll over some unused days to the next year, (d) you can roll over all unused days to the next year, (e) you lose all unused days at the end of the year, (f) you can donate unused days to other employees, (g) you do not know, and (h) other.
-- eflected having a “use it or lose it” policy (Option e above) and 0 reflected not having such a policy.
[loss aversion] 損失厭惡

- we anticipated that employees would be more motivated to use their paid vacation days if they had a “use it or lose it” policy.

- 因答者對自己有幾天休假 不肯定 所以去掉了 84 participants (10.3%)
- 又刪了 71 additional participants were because their data was unusable or contained outliers.6 After data cleaning,
- 都是為了精確 significant

- 有效問卷是final sample of 660 participants (42.6% male; 63.0% married or living with a partner; 81.8% White, mean age  46.9 [SD  12.2], 67.7% parents)
- 最後得到資料用 Descriptive statistic 表達
Descriptive statistics and correlations among study variables for the final usable sample are shown in Table 4.

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Results

Confirmatory factor analysis
examine whether the 13-dimension confirmatory factor analysis from Study 3 would replicate in another sample.
The measurement model (13 factors
Convergent and discriminant validity results.
We examined latent variable correlations to evaluate the convergent and discriminant validity of our scales, using maximum likelihood estimation with 1,000 bootstrapped resamples in Mplus 7.4.
Supplementary discriminant validity analyses
In response to a reviewer’s suggestion that detachment self-efficacy may partly reflect job requirements, we conducted additional analyses to determine the extent to which detachment self-efficacy was related to job requirements using job context information obtained in Wave 2.
(see Table 5). (see Table 5 Correlations Between Detachment Self-Efficacy and Job Context Variables).

Negative binomial regression analyses
Our outcome variable, which we will refer to as “unused vacation days,” was the number of vacation days that were available but were not used for vacation. As our outcome was a count variable (i.e., an integer value of 0 or more), it was inappropriate to use ordinary least squares regression.
Our outcome variable, which we will refer to as “unused vacation days,” was the number of vacation days that were available but were not used for vacation. As our outcome was a count variable (i.e., an integer value of 0 or more), it was inappropriate to use ordinary least squares regression ....... so we conducted an initial Poisson regression with all predictors entered and considered model fit......Thus, instead of using a Poisson regression, we used a negative binomial regression—an approach that is appropriate when overdispersion is present

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In our analyses,
consistent with best practices to omit con- trol variables that have little or no relationship with the outcome variable (Becker et al., 2016), we only included those control variables that significantly predicted unused vacation days (i.e., days given and policy for unused days). Results are presented in Table 6.
- We report exponentiated betas to ease interpretability 我們用貝塔報告指數-以簡化解釋.
- We report exponentiated betas to ease interpretability. When interpreting exponentiated betas, the value above (or below) 1 represents the percentage increase (or decrease) in unused vacation days associated with a one-unit increase in the predictor.
Results revealed that employees who were given more vacation days had more unused vacation days.Employees with a “use it or lose it” policy for their paid vacation days had fewer unused days.
Specifically, every one-unit increase in detachment self-efficacy was associated with a 6% decrease in unused vacation days.Specifically, a one-unit increase in expectations of feeling relaxed was associated with 12% fewer unused vacation days
Supplementary analyses.
to determine whether results differ for employees who are given a relatively high versus low number of vacation days.
Specifically, the reviewer recommended using the median value to split the sample into employees with a lower number of vacation days given and employees with a higher number of vacation days given and running analyses separately for each subsample......Results are shown in Table 7.
The results did differ across these two groups, with the social cognitive variables no longer predicting unused days in the group of employees that received a larger number of vacation days....These results suggest that social cogni- tive constructs are stronger predictors of unused vacation days for employees who receive fewer vacation days However, because these results are supplementary and based on smaller samples sizes than our original planned analyses, they should be interpreted cautiously

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General Discussion
The current research sought to explain employees’ unused vacation days—an important topic given the beneficial effects of vacation on health and well-being (de Bloom et al., 2009).
Overall, we found evidence that domain-specific social cognitive factors (i.e., detachment self-efficacy, expectations of feeling relaxed, and expectations of negative financial consequences) predict employees’ unused vacation days.

Theoretical and Empirical Contributions

Contributions to the recovery literature
we respond to recent calls to better understand the individual factors that influence engagement in recovery-related activities.
- Although numerous studies have shown the importance of detachment for health and well-being (Bennett et al., 2016), our study is the first to our knowledge to document that employees’ beliefs about their ability to detach impact engagement in recovery-related behaviors.

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